How can an artistic approach to music education be included
in the elementary school curriculum when so many other content
areas are given higher priority? Elementary classroom teachers
are obligated by state and district policies to manage the learning
experiences of large groups of children in a wide variety of subjects.
The current federal administration is advocating a set of priorities
and goals in education that does not stress the arts. The Secretary
of Education outlined three priorities for american education
through 1989 (Bell, 1984). These are, in order of priority, literacy,
mathematics, and the preservation of the american system of government.
He acknowledged that there should be room somewhere in the curriculum
for physical education, athletics, vocational and technical instruction
and the visual and performing arts; he also allows for driver
training, home economics and other pursuits preparing individuals
for jobs and parenthood. The federal policy is stated to be based
on the principle of local control rather than mandate; however,
the State of New Mexico has proposed to implement these priorities
exactly as presented with Senate Bill 106. This bill relegates
the arts, along with other 'minor' content areas, to a category
called 'other., and severely limits the amount of time that 'other'
subjects are allotted in the curriculum. Fortunately, studies
show that teacher conviction and initiative has more impact on
what happens in the classroom than policy (Howard, 1984). It would
seem that a teacher would need to have a firm philosophy of the
value of art and music education before being able to give it
a priority in the classroom. This applies whether the classroom
teacher or a specialist provide the actual instruction. The purpose
of this paper is to help teachers find ways to develop such a
philosophy and to implement or support an aesthetic curriculum
in the classroom. The value of an aesthetic approach to the sciences
as well as the arts is presented as a means towards developing
artistic habits of learning that may help in the acquisition of
the ability to appreciate music and the arts aesthetically.
CURRENT PHILOSOPHIES
There are many reasons stated in the literature for studying music.
Reimer (1970) emphasizes the aesthetic values, but other authors
also mention transfer of skills, alternative cognitive style of
learning, and artistic modes for learning other subjects, including
acculturation and multicultural values education. Music educators
express many views about the purpose of music education including
enjoyment, values development, civilization, and language expression.
These philosophies take many forms in practice from having everyone
sing a few songs, to the refined development of the 'talented'.
An aesthetic approach to music education, as advocated in this
paper, would be based on the concepts of the music content area
(such as rhythm, scale, form, etc.), use musical works which are
capable of being aesthetically perceived and aesthetically reacted
to, and be taught with a method that focuses on aesthetic experiences
(Reimer, 1970, p. 86). Using music in the teaching of other subjects
is also advocated, as well as the aesthetic teaching of all subjects.
However, such uses of music are not used as justification for
the value of music education.
Aesthetic values are not exclusive to music appreciation, many
subjects can be perceived and reacted to aesthetically. Effective
music instruction may help prepare an individual to perceive many
things in new ways. Phelan (1965) claims that students can adapt
methods and principles, attitudes and behaviors learned in music
class to other subjects such as language arts. Hanshumaker (1980)
also reports that participation in music classes often has a positive
influence on achievement in other classes. Such benefits of music
education apparently exist; however, Serafin maintains that an
emphasis on these external values is detrimental to the progress
of music education. As long as we attempt to justify the arts
by reference to non-aesthetic values, we are short changing our
strongest argument, their enduring personal value to the individual.
Music instruction should focus on the feelings that can be generated
and knowledge of how the musical sounds do that. Student involvement
in music should be active, productive, and stimulating.
The study of music in itself has great worth to the individual.
Whether the benefit is explained by the 'right brain, left brain
theory' (Wilson, 1985), or metaphysics (Witherspoon, 1977), philosophers
agree: music is an important activity for human beings Plato felt
that anyone who did not cultivate the soul through music and the
arts was not fit to rule. Modern music-textbook writers emphasize
the power of music as an art and provide experiences to develop
the students' cognition for life-long learning (Boardman and Andress,
1981 and Crook, et al, 1981). All students in all grades should
have the opportunity for growth in musical skills, they say. Musical
concepts and behaviors should be taught to all the students because
they can enhance the quality of life for all the students.
'The Music Book (Boardman and Andress, 1981) is designed to help
the student gain experience in using different cognitive skills
that will assist in the generative learning process:
to develop recall and translative skills the student is guided
to label, list, imitate, define
to develop analytic skills, the student is guided to compare,
describe, discriminate, categorize
to develop synthesizing skills, the student is guided to create,
seek alternatives, use divergent thinking
to develop evaluative skills, the student is guided to use other
cognitive skills as a basis for acceptance, rejection or correction.
The ultimate objective of The Music Book is to provide young people
with musical understanding, cognitive skills, broad experience
with many kinds of music, and involvement in many kinds of musical
activities in order that they may make their own value judgements
regarding musical choices, career choices, involvement in and
out of school music activities and the support of music in their
community.'
'The major goal of Silver Burdett Music (Crook, et al, 1981) as
stated in the philosophy is to increase the sensitivity of all
children to the power of music as an art. This goal is fulfilled
throught the accomplishment of objectives stated in terms of seven
behaviors: Ends: perceiving and reacting; Means: producing, conceptualizing,
analyzing, evaluating; Outcome: valuing.' Learning various styles
of music leads to the development of musical flexibility involving
cognitive, psychomotor and affective areas. This flexibility then
makes it possible for one to perform and listen to additional
new music with increased perceptiveness and ease. As a side benefit
of this phenomenon, some claim that multicultural musical experiences
may help alter attitudes toward diversity and increased acceptance
of differences in ethnic traditions in the nation (Anderson, 1983).
Music is a multicultural education. Music is a universal medium
of expression for the deepest feelings and aspirations that belong
to all humanity. Musical experience extends the means of expression,
the vocabulary, the appreciation of diversity and similarity,
the ability to participate with a group, an appreciation for the
interelatedness of the arts, intellectual stimulus, tolerance
and respect (Dodds, 1983). Palmer (1987) notes that 'hybridization',
the patching together of the old and the new and the exotic styles
of music, has become a popular source of cultural energy for many
musicians. Speaking of the value of various cultural perspectives,
Beltran says that education should preserve the dignity of the
individual and the learning of the (various) cultures in order
to integrate them into the national society as values that enrich
it, not as products of a fallen and inferior people (Beltran,
1983). Langer (1971, p. 93) and Obrien (1986) suggest that music
has the power to influence culture and taste. Such side benefits
may come even stronger when the focus is on the musical concepts.
While one side benefit of musical training may be the acceptance
and understanding of other cultures, the strongest congnitive
value of music study is 'self-knowledge, insight into all phases
of life and mind, springing forth from artistic imagination' (Langer,
1971).
'Art is the process of intelligence by which humans turn creative
products into statements of their condition. It offers the means
for individuals to conceptualize ideas and render them comprehensible.
It is an important carrier of civilization and serves as an antenna
capable of guiding individuals and keeping them in touch with
the undercurrents of their times' (Lewis, 1977, p. 397).
Classroom teachers should not feel that the variety of philosophies
in music education are out of their reach. They can be summarized
into two camps and a compromise can be reached. On the one hand,
there are those who see music as a means to other ends. On the
other, music is seen as valuable in itself, that we can learn
to appreciate and react to the sounds alone. Teachers with an
intelligently developed personal philosophy of music can benefit
from the work done in both camps. Teachers can use music (and
the values they learn from the arts) to create aesthetically rewarding
experiences in any content area. Teachers must also learn to lead
students to increased understanding of music as an art of infinite
value to people, a way to foster the highest values of humanity.
MUSICAL TEACHER EDUCATION
How can a regular classroom teacher gain the knowledge and preparation
that will lead to an aesthetic philosophy of music education?
Such training is often lacking even in the preparation of music
teachers. In discussing the issues of music teacher and college
music education professor training, Meske (1987) mentions the
need for general knowledge, humanities, sciences, music content,
teaching skills and applied teaching methods. She speaks of the
vicious circle tn education methods: that one tends to teach as
he was taught, not as he was taught to teach. She sees as a solution
to this, more methods courses for PhD candidates in music education,
but does not mention instruction in the philosophy of education,
even at that level. In her own teacher training manual (Bergethon
and Boardman, 1970), she addresses an aesthetic philosophy when
she states as the purpose of music education: 'to help children
discover, understand and enjoy music as an art and as a means
of self-expression'. In her elementary music text-book (Boardaan
and Andress, 1981), her stated purposes include reference to nonitusical
outcomes: 'that they may make their own value judgments regarding
musical choices, career choices, involvement in and out of school
music activities and the support of music in their community'.
Her own writings suggest the importance of developing a philosophy
of music education, but she does not show how teachers may be
encouraged to develop one. A course of studies that does not specifically
address philosophy development may not lead to the convictions
needed to implement a music curriculum. Howard (1987) shows that
courses in content and methods are not sufficient to motivate
teachers to take initiatives in a subject that is given low status
in the curriculum. Teacher training for music teachers as well
as classroom teachers should include courses that provide a foundation
of information upon which to build an aesthetic music education
philosophy and many positive experiences with successful, exemplary
aesthetic education.
The NBC Task Force on Music Teacher Education for the Nineties
(Dean, 1987), does suggest ways that teachers can develop and
defend their own philosophy of music education. They advocate
teacher growth and independence towards personal intrinsic motivation
active leadership by teachers in developing educational policies
affecting music education in their schools and states, and that
each should reaffirm his own committment to music education. Classroom
teachers should seek opportunities to discuss and influence music
education policies.
The Betty Center for Education in the Arts recently sponsored
their 'First National Conference: Discipline-based Art Education:
What Forms Will it Take?' (Michaelson, 1987). National Endowment
for the Arts chairman Frank Hodsoll urged a 'broad national coalition
to make serious and sequential arts education part of basic education
reform. Our young people deserve to have their eyes, ears and
minds opened to civilization...they deserve to know about art.'
This and other similar efforts by organized groups may help bring
the issue of aesthetic education to the attention of teachers.
Classroom teachers as well as arts educators should take advantage
of any opportunity to interact with the information to be shared
by such efforts. Classroom teachers can seek opportunities to
learn skills, knowledge and experience in music and aesthetics
that can lead to a philosophy. Such an aesthetic philosophy held
by teachers can sustain their efforts to provide opportunities
for student aesthetic experiences.
MUSICAL EDUCATION AND POLITICS
In the Betty Center conference, U.S. Secretary of Education, William
Bennett, was quoted as saying, 'the study of the arts is just
as essential to the education of a disadvantaged child as it is
for any other' (Nichaelson, 1987). In the conference, both Chairman
Hodsoll and Secretary Bennett praised the Japanese educational
system, which requires two class periods per week each in music
and art and handicrafts in grades 1-6 (6 hours of arts per week).
Two more courses per week are required each in music and fine
arts in grades 7-8 and one course per week in each of these in
grade 9. In contrast, the New Mexico State Legislature, S.D. 106,
(1986) has eliminated the fine arts/practical arts requirement
from high school and reduced the suggested time for 'other subjects'
in the lower grades to a degree that may result in only one hour
per week for music in grades 1-3 and only one hour per month in
grades 1-6.:
Other: Art, music, P.E. health, computer
grade 1,2 - 1 hour per day
grade 3 - 11/2 hours per day
grades 4, 5, 6 - 1 hour per week
Ernest L. Boyer, President of the Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching said, 'The arts are not a frill, they
are an essential part of language. They help children express
feelings, they learn a visual language. We live in a dangerous,
interdependent world. Today's students need to learn not just
the language of politics and propaganda, they also need to learn
languages that transcend intellectual and ideological barriers'
(Michaelson, 1987). 'What discursive symbolism -language in its
literal use - does for our awareness of things about us and our
own relation to them, the arts do for our awareness of subjective
reality, feeling, and emotion; they give form to iward -experiences
and thus make them conceivable' (Langer, 1971). This broad view
of arts education does not seem to be the driving philosophy of
lawmaking in New Mexico as shown by its policies. Classroom teachers
must resolve such differences for themselves with regard to the
teaching of music and 'other -subjects' not given a priority by
the system. The way a classroom teacher presents music instruction
or reacts to the itinerant music teacher may have a greater impact
on the students' attitude than any stated school policy.
The manifestation of a deep and sustaining philosophy of music
education is demonstrated in various ways by music educators.
I know a music teacher who long ago retired from school teaching.
Now she attends conferences, takes classes, actively participates
in the state and national Music Teachers Association and constantly
strives to upgrade her own skills in support of her many and growing
numbers of private piano students. I know another, fed up with
the system and the frustration he has had in striving for excellence
in his students and his productions, now satisfies his thirst
for music by playing chamber music with a few friends. Both believe
in the value of the classics and the striving for perfection,
yet manifest that interest in contrasting, yet productive, behaviors.
Many other educators are satisfied with their students having
enjoyment with a cursory exposure to a variety of styles and only
gentle efforts at performance. Some teachers are able to strike
that essential balance and instruct students in musical concepts
that help them have significant, memorable experiences with sound
in creative school experiences. Classroom teachers must not be
discouraged by their own or their students' lack of performing
skills. Music can be perceived by an individual at a higher level
than his ability to produce it. There are many ways to involve
students in musically satisfying experiences. Teachers should
experiment with ways that might work with their combination of
personal interest and student response.
'The kind of change that will make a difference in schools will
not come with better theories or with better materials or even
with better informed teachers, but only with individuals taking
action towards change. The problem of changing instruction in
the long run, is a political question' (Smith, -1982). Change
can only occur at the grass roots level through the efforts of
individual teachers who, one step at a time, improve their own
art of teaching and are able to inspire the students, one child
at a time, to see the beauty in knowledge, the insight of listening,
the joy of creation. A holistic view of all the content areas
and their relation to a student's personal experience may be the
best way to make schooling relevant and exciting (Smith, 1982).
Music instruction that is holistic and aesthetic may help teachers
and students attain perspectives that are valuable in all the
curriculum.
AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE
As we drove home from church one Sunday, my wife suddenly asked
me to stop the car. She saw through the shading of her dark glasses,
a colorful light refraction in the crisp clouds of the winter
sky. She passed the glasses around, allowing all to share in the
moment, made more distinct and intense by the dark glasses. After
all had been made aware of the colors, they were more easily perceived
without the glasses. When we got home, my 14 year old son searched
for and found a photograph of the same celestial phenomenon that
he had taken on a scout trip.
Late that evening my mother-in-law called to tell my wife to run
outside and look at the moon. A bright white moon shone directly
overhead through high, icy clouds. The moon appeared in the center
of a large, round clearness, surrounded by a halo of shimmering
clouds, rung on their inner edge by a particular brightness. My
wife called her blind friend and described the scene to her. She
told her son who ran out to see it. He came back in begging for
the phone so he could tell his friend to look at the 'ring around
the moon.
The next morning I was in the car with my teenaged daughter before
sunrise. I pointed towards the thin, bright red clouds near the
dark mountains behind which the yellows of a new day were changing
to blue. I asked her if she ever noticed and appreciated the beauties
of the sky. She said that she did notice beauty in such scenes,
and upon my questioning revealed that the beauty was not tied
to any external meaning, such as 'red means mad', or 'red means
happy'. She admitted that she did not need to understand the words
of the Spanish language song playing on the radio at that time
in order to find some enjoyment of the musical experience. When
we arrived home, my wife said that she had seen the sunrise too,
and enjoyed it. I asked her if she got that same enjoyment from
other things. She said she felt the same way when she holds a
baby or looks at a work of art, or listens to certain types of
music. Certainly, the classical music that I listen to does not
give my wife or my fifteen year old daughter those feelings, but
why could it not? An effective aesthetic teacher may strive to
expand the ability of the students to find beauty and enjoyment
in many media and contexts.
Reimer (1970, p. 39) observes that art makes the
'subjective realm of human responsiveness objective by capturing
and presenting in its aesthetic qualities the patterns and forms
of human feelingfulness. Aesthetic education is the education
of feeling. Aesthetic education should have as its deepest value
the enrichment of the quality of people's lives through enriching
their insights into the nature of human feelings.
My family members are learning to be sensitive to many
types of potentially aesthetic experiences. They are learning
to find beauty and enjoyment in a variety of media and circumstances.
The next step, I suppose, would be to find ways to open even more
doors to quality of life for them by making them increasingly
sensitive to those things they know how to enjoy and finding ways
that they can enjoy even more media in more cultural contexts.
The goals of education should be to enable individuals to enjoy
ever widening circles of understanding, acceptance and the enjoyment
of an enriched quality of life. These values can and should be
taught in the elementary classroom. Adler (1982) suggests that
such values may be acquired slowly by children, but that they
should be schooled in the foundations and prepared for a lifetime
of self-education. Teachers should watch for (or create) opportunities
that include a potentially aesthetic experience and the proper
attitude of the students. As teachers reinforce such values and
experiences with the students, their ability to perceive and react
to them may increase.
'Art can satisfy a felt need for activities that confirm people
as individuals. It provides opportunities to deal with feelings
and emotions, where individuals can place their experiences into
value relationships and where necessary feelings of importance
and uniqueness can be sustained' (Lewis, 1977, p. 397).
ALTERNATIVE VIEWS ON WHICH AN ART PHILOSOPHY CAN BE BASED
Reimer explains that there are various contrasting ways to look
at the value of the arts. The perspectives known as referential,
and absolute expressionist will be contrasted as possible approaches
that may be used by elementary teachers. The 'absolute formalist'
view which he presents as an intellectual satisfaction with art,
and other possible reactions to music, will not be discussed here.
The 'referentialist' emphasizes the value of artistic expression
as a symbol or sign of extramusical idea such as emotions, social
order, attitudes, events, objects, etc. Music, to the referential
ist, is a 'language' that contains rules and symbols with specific
objective meaning. This philosophy is exemplified by Socialist
Realism in which the function of art is to further the cause of
the state by influencing attitudes toward social problems and
by influencing people to meet the needs of the state. Tolstoy
believes that art should transmit the emotion intended by the
artist to the receiver of the art in the most direct and powerful
way.
This referent philosophy is alive and well today. Ehle (1987)
believes that the tones of music express ideas and emotions of
the age such as order, diligence, piety, social structure
(Baroque), pleasure (Classical), social freedoms and the quest
for them (Romantic)1 despair, neurosis, insanity, psychosis, anti-social
behavior, intellectual isolation, terror, exhaustion (20th Century
music). 'The artist sees the world more keenly than the rest of
us and reveals the reality of the world to us'. Ehle advocates
the use of art and music as a means to influence a better world.
He envisions the composers creating a static, non-controversial,
pleasant music in diatonic quartilism and the Phrygian and Locrian
modes, because they are the least aggressive. He advocates
that composers diminish rhythm, because it relates to adrenalin
and aggressiveness.
In contrast, Suzanne Langer (1958) seems to agree with the 'absolute
expressionist' ideas of Reimer. Music and the arts can influence
culture and civilization, but in a very different way than claimed
by Tolstoy and EhIe. What language does to help us categorize
and understand objective reality, the arts do for our awareness
and understanding of subjective reality, feeling and emotion.
The arts' cognitive value is an insight into all phases of life
and mind, a self-knowledge through imagination. Artists of a culture
have common 'styles of feeling', rather than 'common ideas'. Art
promotes the advance of culture because the artists not only react
to but also influence the ways of feeling during an age - feeling,
rather than social idealsa Art stabilizes the advance of culture
by helping the citizens attain a wholistic or subjective appreciation
of nature rather than a quantification and control of it.
AESTHETIC EDUCATION IN THE CLASSROOM
Lewis (1977, p. 393) explains that art has historically been used
in this country for the (referential) purposes of defining class
distinction and role. A referentially artistic approach to social
studies in the classroom can give students insights into the political
and social climate of an age. Such benefits of an artistic approach,
integrated with other subjects, should be one of the teaching
strategies available to classroom teachers.
Adler (1982) insists that training for jobs is not a sufficient
role for the schools. We should be educating for the duties of
self-governing citizenship and for the enjoyment of things of
the mind and spirit that are essential to a good human life. The
values of 'absolute expressionism' may be useful in preparing
individuals for that type of enjoyment. Bezi and Myers (1968)
give seven suggestions to teachers who wish to foster creativity
in the students. (1) The teacher must value creativity and behave
creatively. The importance of the teacher valuing and modelling
aesthetic behaviors is essential to student acquisition of these
values. (2) Establishing a classroom environment supportive of
creativity is vital. Taylor's (1977) work in 'educational aesthetics'
shows that a conception of the learning and teaching environments
as a single system can promote aesthetic, interactive learning
styles. (3) The teacher should strive to present different ideas
and help students view things from different perspectives. The
key element in the ability to react aethetically is perception.
The ability to accept diversity and ambiguity and to seek different
ways of viewing and solving problems can aid this process. (4)
The teacher and students should continuously analyze and evaluate
the process and the products of the creative act. Such an analytical
involvement in the processes of creation may highten their ability
to perceive and react aesthetically and may influence them to
create aesthetically. (5) Self confidence must be nurtured. The
process of aesthetic and creative involvement requires risk taking.
(6) Creative and aesthetic behaviors should be rewarded in the
classroom. The art of teaching requires skillful balance between
the encouragement of innovative efforts and reminders to conform
to basic societal conventions.
Cataldo (1977) suggests that aesthetic and holistic paradigms
may be developed for the sciences as well as the arts. He contends
that science must be aware of the societal contexts in which -phenomena
occur. He claims that scientists and designers use the same mental
processes and operations to reach conclusions: perception, observation,
imagination, impulse and drive, descriptive research, intuition,
probability and predictability. The kind of phenomena, not the
analytical process itself,
is how scientists and artists traditionally differ in approach.
He advocates that all society might benefit if scientists learned
from the artists to see the world as a holistic, global ecological
system rather than a segmented, marketable commodity. In many
traditional cultures, the chief scientists are the artists. For
example, song and art are combined by the Native American
medicine men to bring the sick into harmony with the environment
and thus to heal them. Teachers may well encourage holistic balance
along with skills development in the sciences.
Music education can have a powerful influence on personal development
and long term happiness. Classroom teachers who are developing
a personal philosophy of aesthetic music education can do much
to support the music program of the school. They can encourage
students to perceive and respond with deep feeling to musical
and other artistic phenomena. They can model an aesthetic response
to music, art, and nature. They can teach an aesthetic and holistic
point of view of science and the world. They can use high quality
music and other arts in support of the other content areas. They
can be a positive influence in aesthetic policy making. They can
insure that the students in their own classroom receive high quality
education through their own efforts.
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